Poverty, policies, and politics: a rights-based approach to food insecurity in Africa

2.1 Situational analysis of the food crisis in Africa

Goal 1 of the African Union’s Agenda 2063 and Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) share the priorities of eradicating hunger and ensuring food security for all at all times. These goals seek to ensure physical, social, and economic access to enough safe and nutritious food.5 African countries, on the other hand, are falling short of these targets. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), more than 322 million Africans were severely food insecure in 2021, and this figure was rising. Due to economic recessions, rising unemployment, and income losses, as well as the COVID-19 pandemic, the African continent’s food security situation has deteriorated.6 Food security can be defined and measured in a variety of ways. Food security was defined by the World Food Summit in 1996 as existing ‘when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’.7 Food security is commonly conceptualised as both physical and economic access to food that meets people’s dietary needs as well as their food preferences.8 Food security exists when all members of the household have constant access to enough food to live an active, healthy life. Food security is a measure of resilience to potential disruptions or shortfalls of essential food supplies triggered by a wide range of risks such as extreme weather events, transportation disruptions like those seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, energy shortages like those occasioned by Russia-Ukraine conflicts, economic instability, and wars.9 Neoliberalism is viewed as a globalisation of the economic liberalism ideology, which holds that free markets and free trade, unrestricted by any form of state regulation, foster entrepreneurship and encourage economic growth. However, neoliberal economic policies have increased the cost of agriculture, slowed the growth of agricultural production, and diverted agricultural products and arable land to the production of biofuels, all of which have increased food insecurity.10

Food security, like poverty, is a multidimensional issue requiring multi-criteria analysis. In an attempt to give an overview of the food security situation in Africa, this article highlights the FAO’s Prevalence of Undernutrition (PoU) and Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES)-based prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity.11 Malnutrition is a severe complication of food insecurity, and it can appear as either undernutrition, which manifests as stunting, wasting, and being underweight, or over-nutrition, which progresses to overweight and obesity.12 The FAO’s PoU index is calculated using official country statistics on food supply, food consumption, and energy needs, as well as demographic parameters such as age, gender, and physical activity levels.13

2.2 Prevalence of undernutrition

The PoU is intended to capture a year’s worth of energy deprivation and does not reflect the short-term impacts of brief crises or an inadequate intake of key nutrients. In 2021, 278 million Africans were undernourished, an 88.1 million rise from 2005. Eastern Africa accounts for 136.4 million of the total number of undernourished individuals, followed by Central Africa with an estimated 60.7 million; 57.3 million in Western Africa; 17.4 million in Northern Africa; and Southern Africa accounting for 6.3 million.14 These alarming statistics illustrate how severely Africans are deprived of their fundamental rights to food security. Available country-level evidence reveals many countries across the African continent have a high prevalence of food undernutrition. More than half of the population in countries such as Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Somalia, and South Sudan is malnourished.15 A common denominator among these countries is that they have experienced either conflicts or political instability in the preceding decade.16 There is a reciprocal relationship between extreme food insecurity and conflict, as well as the indiscretion of the political class and military junta.

Malnutrition continues to affect a considerable proportion of Africa’s population, particularly young children under the age of five. Stunting, which happens when children are too short for their age, is the most frequent form of malnutrition in Africa. In Africa, 32.4 percent of children under the age of five were estimated to be stunted in 2020.17 This corresponds to around 57.3 million stunted African children who face both short-term and long-term consequences of stunting. Projections show that another 7 million African children were underweight around the same time in 2020.18  Other prevalent manifestations of malnutrition that affect children and women of reproductive age include nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A and iron deficiencies, which develop as a result of inadequate consumption and absorption of essential micronutrients.19 Malnutrition has a detrimental influence on human development that is not limited to health; deficiencies can have a severe impact on cognitive and motor development in later life. Long-term consequences of malnutrition include lower adult productivity, which affects employment and income generation. Malnutrition thus leads to the vicious cycle of poverty in low-income households, contributing in part to food insecurity.20

2.3 The double burden of malnutrition

While the image of under-nutrition remains stark on the African continent, the World Health Organisation (WHO) warns that the other edge of the malnutrition sword is also wreaking havoc.21 If no strong actions are implemented to reverse the trends, one in every five adults and one in every 10 adolescents and teens in African nations at high risk of obesity will be obese by the end of 2023.22 According to the WHO assessment, the prevalence of obesity among adults in 10 high-burden African countries would vary from 13.6 percent to 31 percent, while it would range from 5 percent to 16.5 percent among children and adolescents.23 Africa is also dealing with an increase in the number of overweight children. In 2019, the continent was home to 24 percent of the world’s overweight children under the age of 5.24 The over-nutrition burden of malnutrition in Africa is partly due to dietary changes brought about by reliance on energy-dense foods and a lack of access to and cost of healthy food alternatives.

2.4 Food insecurity experience scale

The prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) is an estimate of the proportion of the population encountering moderate or severe limitations in their capacity to access sufficient food over the course of a year.25 In addition to availability, sustainability, and agency, people experience significant food insecurity when they are unsure of their capacity to access food and have been compelled to lower the quality or amount of food they consume at times during the year due to a lack of money or other resources.26 Individuals in severe food insecurity are those who have run out of food, experienced hunger, and, in the worst-case scenario, have gone for days without eating, putting their health and well-being at risk.27 As reported by the FAO, the incidence of severe food insecurity is highest in Central Africa, at 37.7 percent, whereas the prevalence of moderate food insecurity is almost similar in Eastern and Central Africa, at 66.9 and 75.3 percent, respectively.28

Africa is home to more than one-third of the 2.3 billion people who experience food insecurity globally. About 322 million Africans, mostly living in the Central, Eastern, and Western African regions, suffer from severe food insecurity. Another 57.9 percent, 794.7 million African people, are moderately food insecure.29 The high prevalence of food insecurity among African countries is attributable to a variety of challenges, including weak governance systems.

2.5 Lived experiences of hunger

In terms of consumption, poorer purchasing power owing to lower income levels or rises in food costs has contributed to increasing levels of hunger recorded across the continent, which has been exacerbated by the COVID-19-related economic effects. For example, food costs spiked in the early months of the epidemic, and these increases have been sustained in many countries. In West Africa, Nigeria’s annual inflation rate rose for the fifth consecutive month in June 2022, reaching 18.6 percent, the highest rate since January 2017, and compared to 17.7 percent in May 2022.30 Bread and cereals, potatoes, yams, meat, fish, oil, and fat all contributed to an increase in food inflation to 20.6 percent from 19.5 percent. The sub-index of food and non-alcoholic beverages was by far the most significant, accounting for about half of the total weight. 31

In May 2022, food inflation in Eastern Africa’s Kenya reached 13.8 percent year on year, the highest level recorded during the period. Food costs in the country have been rising since March 2022. In comparison, the rate of food inflation increased by 0.9 percent between May and June 2022.32 According to the Bureau for Food and Agricultural Policy’s Food Inflation Brief, South African food and non-alcoholic beverage inflation rose 8.6 percent year on year in June 2022,33 owing primarily to higher prices for meat, bread and cereals, and oil and fats. Food and non-alcoholic inflation increased by 1.2 percent month on month in June 2022. This inflation increased the reported consumer price index inflation rate of 7.4 percent in June 2022 by 1.5 percentage points.34

The consequences of exorbitant food costs and restricted availability include changes in diet structure, which have a detrimental impact on the amount and quality of foods consumed. Due to their pre-existing vulnerabilities, low-income households residing in rural regions and urban informal settlements are disproportionately affected by food insecurity. Gender inequality is also evident in the fact that women are disproportionately affected by negative socioeconomic repercussions such as job loss and food insecurity. Because of the lack of robust social protection systems, as well as high levels of vulnerability and low levels of resilience, many African households remain at risk of food insecurity. Therefore, innovative and multifaceted rights-based approaches are imperative to mitigate the negative trend.

2.6 The relationship between poverty and food insecurity

Poverty is a prevalent problem in Africa. In 2018, around 433 million people in the continent were living below the extreme poverty level of USD 1.90 per day.35 Almost one-third of Africa’s population was living in extreme poverty 2022. More than 40 percent of the African people lived on less than USD 1.90 per day in 2018.36 Poverty is caused by multidimensional factors. Countries in conflict with significant crises in employment, education, and health tend to have larger socio-economically disadvantaged populations. As a result, poverty is more frequent in less-developed countries. When disaggregated by location, rural households experience greater levels of poverty.

Poverty and food insecurity are strongly intertwined since poverty may have a negative impact on the social determinants of health and create tough circumstances for individuals to have an unpredictable food supply. According to data from African nations, food is a key household expense for impoverished households; close to half of family income is spent on food.37 In Nigeria, food accounts for approximately 56.4 percent of households’ earnings.38 Even if they spend a considerable percentage of their household income on food, many poor households remain food insecure due to low, irregular, and variable earnings. Similarly, individuals living in poverty frequently encounter financial constraints that limit their capacity to get sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. The inability to meet the caloric requirements for development and healthy life perpetuates a vicious cycle of poor productivity, resulting in lower earnings and a lack of food access.

3.1 Global and regional frameworks

3.2 Interdependency of the right to food and other human rights

The right to food reflects human rights’ interdependence. Many aspects of the right to food are interrelated with other fundamental human rights, and a lack of appropriate access to food precludes enjoyment of those other fundamental rights. The following are some of the inherent rights that are connected to the right to food:

3.3 Duties of states

The states’ duties stem from the binding international and regional treaties that they have ratified. Upon ratifying an instrument, the state must assure its successful implementation at the national level. According to article 2(1) of the CESCR,71 a state party should use all available resources to ensure the progressive realisation of the rights guaranteed by the CESCR, including the adoption of legislative measures and partnerships. States hold three duties, namely to respect, to protect, and to fulfil an individual’s right to food. States must respect people’s access to and sources of food. This implies that any action that prevents any individual or group from having access to food is prohibited. States have a responsibility to guarantee that state agents do not harm people’s access to food in any way, such as through the destruction of farmlands or the unsustainable conversion of water bodies to dams. State policies should guarantee that equality of access to food is respected.

States must protect people’s realisation of the right to food against third-party infractions. States should prohibit third parties from harming food supplies, such as contaminating land or water with harmful industrial waste. Furthermore, states must formulate and enforce food safety and quality regulations, including processes that safeguard individuals from unwholesome marketing of highly processed foods. Ensure informed healthy food choices, including exclusive breastfeeding promotion through regulation of breast milk substitute advertising. The commitment to fulfill requires states to be proactive in improving people’s access to and utilisation of resources and methods of securing food. States should also carry out and strengthen food and nutrition programs, such as those outlined in the Malabo Declaration of 2014.72

Progressive national level laws: Impressively, some national constitutions in Africa explicitly or implicitly recognise the right to food. Article 43(1)(c) of the Constitution of the Republic of Kenya speaking on Economic and Social Rights states that ‘every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality,’73 thus protecting the right to food directly. In a broader human rights context, article 9(4) of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia’s Constitution states that ‘[a]ll international agreements ratified by Ethiopia are an integral part of the law of the land,’74 implying that having ratified the CESCR, the Ethiopian Constitution recognises the right to food.75 Furthermore, as a goal of the state of Ethiopia, the Ethiopian Constitution alluded to the right to food by providing that policies shall be implemented to the extent that the country’s resources permit to provide all Ethiopians access to food.76

In Western Africa, the Nigerien Constitution provides for the right to food in explicit terms, by affirming that public policies must promote food supply and that each person has the right to a sufficient food supply.77 On the other hand, in the Nigerian Constitution, the right to food can be implied given Chapter II of the Constitution that stipulates the fundamental objectives and directive principles of state policy, in that the state shall direct its policies to ensure ‘that suitable and adequate shelter, suitable and adequate food, reasonable national minimum living wage, old age care and pensions, and unemployment, sick benefits, and welfare of the disabled are provided for all citizens.’78 In Southern Africa, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa affirms that everyone has the right to have access to sufficient food and water, and children have the right to basic nutrition.79 The Constitution further stipulates that the state must take reasonable legislative and other measures within available resources to see to the progressive realisation of the rights.80

Explicit constitutional provision for the right to food is imperative, but not a silver bullet. The CESCR, in its General Comment 12, provides a direction as to going beyond letters in the constitution to the enactment of frameworks to facilitate progressive realisation of the right to food.81 Article 2(1) of the CESCR recognises that economic, social, and cultural rights are not always immediately realisable, thus the concept of ‘progressive realisation’82  of states’ obligations in connection with economic, social, and cultural rights under international law.

The CESCR direction provided that ‘States should consider the adoption of a framework law as a major instrument in the implementation of the national strategy concerning the right to food’.83 ‘The framework law should include provisions on its purpose; the targets or goals to be achieved and the time-frame to be set for the achievement of those targets; the means by which the purpose could be achieved described in broad terms, in particular the intended collaboration with civil society and the private sector and with international organizations; institutional responsibility for the process; and the national mechanisms for its monitoring, as well as possible recourse procedures.’84 The CESCR further advised access to effective remediation for any violation of the right to food; in essence the advisory seeks the protection of the right to food through national courts and beyond.85

In the spirit of the CESCR recommendation, explicit and detailed recognition of the right to food can provide a significant contribution through establishing procedures, such as implementation frameworks on food security, adequate and inclusive budgets, and frameworks empowering national courts with jurisdiction to enforce the right to food. The clear, explicit, and detailed constitutional recognition of the right to food will assist countries in implementing an appropriate legal framework that prioritises the right to food, provides protections against denial of such a right, and promotes knowledge and awareness of food and nutrition as a human right principle, as directed by the CESCR.

4.1 Agenda 2063 and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

The Agenda 2063’s first aspiration envisages ‘a prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development.’87 The aspiration envisions a high standard of living, which may be attained through the prioritisation of eradicating hunger and poverty, as well as ensuring social security, gender equality, and social inclusion. The development of agriculture with the necessary technology, climate resilience, water security, health, and nutrition are other key priorities that are related to food security outlined in the Agenda’s first aspiration.88

In order to address Africa’s development issues within a new paradigm, African Heads of State and Government created the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in 2001, and the AU ratified it in 2002.89 The fundamental goals of NEPAD are to end Africa’s marginalisation, alleviate poverty, and put Africa on a sustainable development path.90 NEPAD, an African Union strategic framework for pan-African socioeconomic development, addresses the major issues that the continent is currently facing, including poverty, hunger, and sustainable development. It also gives African nations exceptional opportunities to fully own their development agendas, to collaborate more closely, and to work more effectively with other nations beyond the continent. NEPAD oversees several programmes and initiatives through six thematic areas, the top of which is agriculture and food security.91

4.2 Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP)

The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP),92 one of NEPAD’s sectoral goals, was created as a response to the emergent need for continental food security. It is an effort for sustainable agricultural growth and poverty reduction. In 2003, in Maputo, Mozambique, the Heads of State and Government of the AU adopted the CAADP, which was intended to serve as a strategic framework for the reform of the agricultural sector.93 Since then, it has had a significant impact on regional and national agricultural policies. CAADP has four priority areas namely: extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control systems; improving rural infrastructure and trade-related capacities for market access; increasing food supply, reducing hunger, and improving responses to food emergency crises; and improving agriculture research, technology dissemination and adoption.94

African nations committed through the CAADP to achieving agricultural growth rates of at least 6 percent annually and allocating at least 10 percent of their national budgets to agriculture and rural development.95 Targets for decreasing poverty and hunger, raising farm productivity and incomes, and enhancing the sustainability of agricultural output and resource use serve as the foundation for these investment commitments.96 In 2020, Makombe and colleagues conducted a study to evaluate how the CAADP had affected the results of food security.97 They conclude that, while modest progress has been made in implementing the CAADP, the continent urgently needs to consolidate efforts on the CAADP indicators.98 Similarly, on undernutrition as an indicator of CAADP, Makombe and colleagues found a modest overall decline in Africa as a whole; the prevalence steadily declined from an annual average of 39.9 percent in the 1995 to 2003 cycle to 34.4 percent and 31.8 percent in the 2008 to 2014 and 2014 to 2019 cycles, respectively.99 Adding to the importance of the CAADP, they discovered that the highest prevalence rates, above 37 percent, in the 2014 to 2019 review cycle were observed in countries that had not implemented the CAADP.100 Despite the mixed observations, they also discovered that the CAADP had a notable influence on increasing agricultural public investment and growth, eradicating poverty, and enhancing mutual accountability.101

4.3 Year of Agriculture, 2014: Malabo Declaration

The AU Heads of State and Government proclaimed 2014 to be the Year of Agriculture and Food Security to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the CAADP.102 The event was a chance to reflect on the successes and experience gained from the first 10 years of the CAADP as well as to focus on the future and what the program needs to accomplish in the upcoming decade until 2025. The 2014 Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods was the high point of the commemoration.103

The 2014 Malabo Declaration outlined seven distinct commitments to promote agricultural transformation and growth for shared prosperity and better livelihoods. Reaffirming the CAADP process’ guiding principles and values; enhancing agricultural investment financing; reaffirming the goal of eradicating hunger and halving global poverty by 2025; boosting intra-African trade in agricultural goods and services; enhancing the resilience of livelihoods and production systems to climate variability and other shocks; and fostering shared accountability for actions and results. A special commitment was made to conduct biennial reviews of progress through the processes of tracking, monitoring, and reporting; multi-sectoral coordination of peer reviews; mutual learning and mutual accountability processes; and strengthening institutional capacity and data generation for evidence-based planning, implementation, and monitoring.104

In February, 2020, the AU released the second Biennial Review Report on the implementation of the 2014 Malabo Declaration.105 Only four member states, Ghana, Mali, Morocco, and Rwanda, according to the report, were on track to meet the Malabo obligations by 2025 out of the 49 member states that reported on implementation of the Malabo Declaration progress during the time under review (2019 biannual review cycle).106 Clinging to hope, about 36 countries have significantly improved their review scores in the second cycle as compared to the first, even though the number of countries on par with the Declaration’s 2025 target is significantly lower than the 20 Member States that were on-track in 2017 during the inaugural biennial review cycle.107

The report, which gave the continent an overall score of 4.03 as opposed to the benchmark of 6.66 to be on track, is rather sobering, suggesting that the continent continues to be off-track in reaching the overall Malabo Declaration goals.108 In terms of recommitting to the CAADP process and eradicating hunger, the continent lost momentum. Only four countries - Burkina Faso, Burundi, Mali, and Mauritania - reached the goal of allocating at least 10 percent of their total national budgets on agriculture, even though around 29 countries exceeded the minimal bar for commitment to boosting intra-African trade in agricultural goods.109

4.4 Rights-based approach: availability, access, utilisation, stability, sustainability, and agency

The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition highlights six dimensions - availability, access, utilisation, stability, sustainability, and agency - that should be taken into consideration when formulating policies related to the right to food.110 A population, household, or individual must always have access to enough food if they are to be considered food secure. They should not run the danger of being without food because of unforeseen events, such changes in the economy or the weather. Malnutrition and food insecurity are more likely to occur in areas where the agriculture season is reliant on the rainy season. Significant seasonal food price changes are an important determinant of child malnutrition, according to Cornia and colleagues, who discovered this in Malawi and Niger.111 In order to prevent anyone from being food insecure due to purchasing capacity and physical access, it is crucial to guarantee the availability and affordability of food year to year.

Food utilisation has two separate dimensions: anthropometric indicators impacted by under-nutrition, such as stunting burden, which was previously described; and input indicators that represent food quality, health, and hygiene conditions, influencing how well available food may be utilised.112 It is critical to understand that the availability of appropriate food sources does not ensure optimal nutritional results, as utilisation by the body is equally imperative. Nutritious and hygienic food contributes in the maintenance of a healthy body, much as being healthy is required to utilise the food consumed.113 Having access to clean water is essential for preparing healthy meals and sustaining a healthy body. Improving access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a key component of food utilisation and influences nutrition outcomes. This reinforces the interdependence of the right to food on other rights previously mentioned.

When a number of relevant indicators are considered, many African countries face a high degree of risk from production and price instability.114 The availability of irrigation facilities, for instance, is an indicator of the extent of a possible collapse in supply due to climatic shocks such as droughts.115 The extent a country depends on imports to meet cereal demand indicates vulnerability to international market fluctuations.116 The share of food imports in total exports reflects potential exposure to international price shocks.117 Given the many interconnected predispositions to food instability, developing policies and interventions that prevent instability in availability and access to food requires a multi-factorial approach, including promotion of peaceful coexistence, conflict resolution, and violence prevention.

Today, agency is viewed as a key component of addressing the growing inequities within food systems, including the power imbalances among those systems’ actors.118 Agency refers to the ability of individuals and groups to exert some control over their own circumstances and to meaningfully contribute to governance processes. Focusing on agency also acknowledges that structural injustices and power disparities in society, whether they be based on gender, race, literacy, or other factors that are frequently outside of an individual’s control, can be obstacles to exercising one’s right to voice and participation in both individual and group decisions about food systems, which can jeopardize food security.119 Sustainable food system practices ensure that the current generation’s food needs are met without jeopardising the needs of future generations while also promoting the long-term regeneration of natural, social, and economic systems. In order to maintain food systems and support food security into the foreseeable future, sustainability emphasises the connections between ecosystems, livelihoods, society, and political economy.120