Zimbabwe’s educational curriculum reforms from 2015 to 2024: human rights implications to learners, educators, parents and guardians

1 INTRODUCTION

The post-independence government of Zimbabwe adopted numerous reforms to address inequalities in the provision of education.1 Despite the high literacy rate, Zimbabwe’s education system inadequately prepared students for the demands of life and the labour market.2 Like many former colonies, the education system was designed in line with the British model.3 The educational systems that were put in place were created to maintain the colonial social hierarchy, promote neo-colonial dependence, uphold elitism, and inadequately train individuals for success and a constantly changing global environment.4 Since the system divided education on the basis of race, there was an urgent need to adopt an educational system detached from Eurocentric influence, and tailored to the specific needs of local communities.5 In response, several initiatives designed to reform the education system with a more socialist orientation were put in place by the government of Zimbabwe.6 The most momentous achievement was the significant rise in student enrolments during the first two decades of independence.7 This expansion created challenges such as limited resources at educational institutions and overcrowding.8 In 2000 governments across the world, including Zimbabwe and other various key stakeholders, participated in the World Education Forum (WEF) in Dakar, Senegal.9 The participants of the forum agreed to adopt six Education for All (EFA) goals and the Dakar Framework for Action. In 2014 an inclusive curriculum reform was initiated by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education to ensure that the educational policies were aligned to international standards and improve the country’s quality of education.10

Zimbabwe crafted a national plan of action setting the objectives and targets towards EFA in 2015. The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development were responsible for implementing actions and activities to attain EFA goals. The national plan of action generated meaningful results with regard to realising the EFA goals such as increasing early childhood development availability to 98 per cent of primary schools, training early childhood development teachers and para-professionals, and consistently revising the education syllabi.11 The government also transfigured the secondary education curricula in order to take in technical and vocational subjects and collaborate with industry partners to improve polytechnics and technical colleges.12 The challenges that were encountered on the road to achieve the EFA include unavailability of adequate education finance; shortage of infrastructure and equipment; poor conditions of service for teachers; gaps in monitoring and supervision; and no provision of facilities for underprivileged children.13

The 2015 WEF, which was held in Incheon, Republic of Korea, reaffirmed the legacies of Jomtien (Thailand) and Dakar (Senegal) that education is a fundamental human right and a public good.14 The Forum plotted a way that is in sync with the ever-changing times and dedicated to ensuring that all children, young people and adults are equipped with knowledge and skills needed to live with dignity and contribute to their communities.15 The WEF accentuated a child-centred approach, where the child is prioritised in the education for all agenda.16 The WEF emphasised the importance of education as a key driver of economic development. Despite government efforts, colonial legacies still linger around Zimbabwe’s education system.17 It is against this background that the authors seek to unearth the education reforms in Zimbabwe from 2015 to 2024, bearing in mind the human rights implications for learners, educators and parents/guardians. It should be noted that this research will only focus on the Continuous Assessment Learning Activity (CALA) and heritage-based education curriculum.

2 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM DURING THE COLONIAL ERA IN ZIMBABWE AND THE TRANSITION TO POST-INDEPENDENCE EDUCATION

Zimbabwe was under British rule from 1890 until gaining independence in 1980 after a prolonged war of liberation. The colonial educational system was characterised by racial bias and the exploitation of education for the African majority.18 The 1899 Education Ordinance created distinct systems of education, one for whites and the other for blacks.19 The system for European students was deliberately crafted to favour an elite ruling class that exploits Africans.20 Its objective was to impart European children with knowledge and skills required to be superior and effective rulers over Africans.21 There was a belief among white people that blacks were intellectually inferior and that they were only effective in the execution of manual and repetitive labour tasks.22 Hence, education was only made accessible to very few black children. A separate curriculum was offered to the poorly-funded schools they attended compared to the predominantly white schools.23 The education offered to Africans prepared them to be employees of the colonialists. The extent of racial discrimination and unfair provision of social services such as education led to a protracted war of liberation, which gave birth to Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980.24

The post-colonial government ‘inherited a system of education that was racially biased and unequal in both governance and quality. The colonial Rhodesian government made European education compulsory and universal, and spent as much as 20 times more per European child than the African child.’25 To eliminate the imbalances created by the colonial administration, a number of educational reforms had to be introduced to make education accessible to every citizen. The government understood that education was the substratum for political transformation and socio-economic development.26 Public schools were made available for all and priority was placed on teacher training, setting a good example for other African countries.27 The first 15 years of independence focused on massive expansion of Zimbabwe’s education system.28 However, in the early 2000s the situation changed for the worse as a result of political, economic and financial crises, which had a detrimental effect on the education system. Lack of funding for education as a result of the economic adjustment programmes of the 1990s and early 2000s was worsened by the economic collapse that followed the fast-track land reform programme initiated by the government in 2000.29 The government recognised the need for an ambitious education reform that would benefit all children and save the country from its economic woes. In an effort to improve the quality of education, among other policies, the government adopted the CALA and heritage-based education curriculum.

3 ORIGIN OF COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATION

The origin of competency-based learning was a conference that was held in Incheon, Korea in 2015 where the Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action of 2015 was adopted.30 After this conference, Zimbabwe began the roll-out of its curriculum reform and commenced implementation of the CALA.31 Historically, competency-based education (CBE) emerged in the United States in the early 1970s.32 European countries such as the United Kingdom and Germany followed suit and embraced the CBE in the 1980s.33 In the 1990s Australia adopted the competency-based curriculum (CBC). The French community of Belgium adopted competences into its education curriculum in 1994 and 2001.34 In British Columbia and Scotland, there have been moves toward extensive implementation of the CBE.35 Competency-based policies were also introduced in Luxembourg, Mexico, Japan, Vietnam and Kazakhstan.36 In Finland and New Zealand, the policy and practice have both shifted to adopt CBE in their systems.37

The rapidly-changing world has caused most countries to realise the need to revamp their education systems and implement key competencies that are required in the job market. For a long time, the content-based curriculum has been blamed for producing individuals with inadequate skills that deviate from real-life experiences. In Africa, at least half of the countries adopted CBE.38 Zambia, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria and South Africa are some of the countries that have adopted this innovative policy into their education systems.39 South Africa first adopted the CBC in 1998 to equip its citizens with employable skills needed to address contemporary issues.40 Nigeria went on to change its curriculum from content to competency-based learning, after introducing universal basic education in 2004.41 Other countries that adopted competency-based learning include Benin, Djibouti, Gabon, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal and Tunisia.42 Algeria adopted competency-based learning but has not yet implemented it in classrooms.43 Zimbabwe was lagging behind since it was relying on its traditional curriculum.44

4 THE ‘BEST INTERESTS OF THE CHILD’ AND THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION

The ‘best interests of the child’ is a guiding principle that ensures that decision makers prioritise the rights, needs and futures of children. In other words, the ‘best interests’ refers to the well-being of the child.45 When making decisions regarding children, the government must assess whether its decision will be in the best interests of the child. Various international and regional instruments give children the right to have their best interests considered in all decisions and actions pertaining to their well-being and welfare. The right to education is enshrined in numerous human right treaties such as the 1960 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Convention against Discrimination in Education (CADE); the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW); and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).46 CRC is the main legal instrument on the protection of children.47 The Committee on the Rights of the Child monitors its implementation.48 The best interests of the child ensure the full and effective enjoyment of all the rights preserved in CRC. ICESCR, CRC and CADE lay out the aims of education from a human rights perspective, and the Committee on the Rights of the Child recapitulates these as holistic development of the individual.49 Article 3(1) of CRC points out that the best interests of the child shall take centre stage in all actions affecting children.50 The right to education is also guaranteed in African human rights instruments, including the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (African Children’s Charter) and 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Charter). Furthermore, the right to education is stressed in the Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) that calls for ‘inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ by 2030.51 Education in the best interests of the child promotes the principle of equal educational opportunity.

5 EDUCATION AS A HUMAN RIGHT IN ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwean educational system is managed by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development. The former is in charge of primary, secondary and non-formal education and the latter oversees tertiary education. The education system comprises primary, secondary and tertiary education. Primary education is made up of nine years of education; secondary education consists of four years of lower secondary education and two years of upper secondary education.52 The Constitution and the Education Amendment Act (2020) influence the legal environment.53 The international and regional policy framework includes the United Nations SDGs, 2015-2030; African Union (AU) Agenda, 2063; Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA), 2016-25; and Southern African Development Community (SADC) frameworks.54 Zimbabwe’s Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP 2021-2025), implemented by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in line with the National Development Strategy (NDS 1 2021-2025) aims to safeguard universal education coverage.55

According to the ESSP, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education as the duty bearer on enjoyment of the right strives to ensure the realisation of the right to education in Zimbabwe.56 The Ministry’s goal is to ensure children’s access to quality, inclusive and equitable education. This is in compliance with article 26 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Universal Declaration); article 13 of ICESCR; article 17 of the African Charter; article 11 of the African Children’s Charter; and sections 75(1)(a) and (b) of the Constitution of Zimbabwe.

The importance of the right to education in Zimbabwe is evidenced by its prioritisation in the NDS 1.57 The NDS 1 gives the ministry the mandate to provide quality, equitable and inclusive education in the country. The government prioritised four focus areas in its quest to ensure effective implementation of its mandate. These areas are education infrastructure; curriculum and assessment frameworks; adequate safeguarding and learners’ support with emphasis on regular and reliable provision of school feeding and nutrition; as well as enhancing the capacity of teachers through continuous professional development.58

These efforts are being undermined by several challenges that include inadequate education financing; multiple humanitarian challenges such as floods, cyclones, droughts and diseases; limited institutional capacity, the impact of COVID-19; as well as other socio-economic barriers that militate against attainment of quality, equitable and inclusive education for all children.59 COVID-19 cost the education sector massive learning time that needed to be redeemed through catch-up strategies such as compression of syllabi and modification of the assessment system.60

Of concern also has been the high school drop-out rates. Between 2015 and 2019 drop-out rates for primary schools ranged from 2 to 3 per cent, while for secondary schools it ranged from about 3 to 4 per cent of the total enrolments.61 The major reasons that were identified for learners dropping out of school included financial constraints, absconding, special needs and learning difficulties, illness and death.62 The Basic Assistance Education Module (BEAM) was introduced to pay tuition fees for indigent learners, but the government has been struggling to provide funds to schools accommodating learners covered by BEAM.63 Regarding special needs education, some schools have multi-disability resource centres to cater for learners with differing special needs, but these are not found in all schools, creating an inclusivity gap.64

All these challenges that are faced by the education sector can be mitigated by adequate funding so that interventions are put in place to ensure that the government’s priorities are not derailed. However, the ministry’s projected budget of US $5 089 billion for the period 2021-2025 is inadequate to cover all the needs of the ministry that relate to the focus areas discussed above as well as other costs such as text books and other learning materials; information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure; upgrading and installation in areas without internet connectivity; the provision of ICT hardware; the setting up of computer laboratories at all schools; as well as capacity building of teachers.65

6 THE CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND HERITAGE-BASED EDUCATION CURRICULUM

The concept of CALA was implemented by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in 2021 across all levels of Zimbabwe’s education. The CALA programme was part of the 2015 new curriculum but was set aside due to the unavailability of resources.66 The CALA aimed to provide a continuous assessment approach to learning. CALA is defined as ‘any educational activity that demands students to demonstrate and perform their understanding, proficiency and knowledge of any subject they are learning’.67 The CALA component was incorporated into the national education model in order to contribute to learner’s assessments at the grade 7, form 4 and form 6 final examinations. CALA was created as a response to the recommendations of the 1998 Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training, which advocated a practice-based educational system.68 It contributed 30 per cent to the students’ final assessment marks, while the knowledge evaluated during examinations contributed 70 per cent to the final marks.

CALA encompasses learning activities or assessment that require learners to demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and ability.69 The main goal of CALA was to produce tangible products that can act as evidence of learning.70 Education that is only narrowed to the classroom and disengaged from the environment is irrelevant because it fails to equip students with vital work ethics and basic skills.71 Curriculum innovations and reviews are crucial prerequisites that convert educational pedagogies into new methodical paradigms connected to learner experiences linked to the corporate world.72 However, the CALA programme faced challenges and massive pushback from learners, educators, parents/guardians and various stakeholders who felt that the approaches and methods used in implementing the programme were not realistic. The CALA curriculum failed to meet the expectations of various stakeholders despite the planners’ vision of it serving as a method to transform lives of learners through active participation and innovation.73

The curriculum was criticised by educators, learners and parents for failing to provide training to familiarise them with it and for being financially demanding.74 Hence, the CALA programme was seen as burdensome by various stakeholders. Formal complaints were made by stakeholders regarding their dissatisfaction with CALA at curriculum review meetings, but the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education was not at liberty to share the minutes with stakeholders. The handling of CALA by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education sparked discontent among teachers, who play a crucial role in its implementation.75 The CALA component was a good programme. However, introducing it to school examinations without training educators resulted in a chaotic implementation due to their limited knowledge about the model. The exclusion of teachers in the curriculum preparation stages causes teachers to not fully understand the curriculum.76 The Curriculum Development and Technical Services unit has a mandate ‘not just to produce curriculum documents but to interface with teachers who interpret and implement those documents by engaging them in professional dialogue’.77

In 2024 the government made changes to the education curriculum, with CALA being replaced by the school-based projects with an emphasis on students focusing on practical aspects at school.78 The transition from the CALA programme to school-based projects was a decisive change in Zimbabwe’s education system. The school-based projects were adopted to improve practical learning and remove the burden on learners and teachers.79 The heritage-based education 2024-2030 curriculum framework aims to transform the education system and to equip students with relevant skills, knowledge and values critical for national development.80 The goal of the revised curriculum is to foster critical thinking, innovation and creativity. The learners should be able to provide goods and services needed in the community they serve by the time they complete the ordinary level.81

The heritage-based education is supported by five pillars, namely, ‘programmes/learning areas infrastructure; staffing infrastructure; physical and digital infrastructure; legal and regulatory infrastructure; and financial infrastructure’.82 The curriculum has the potential to prepare students to become employable or entrepreneurs in the future. The heritage-based education gives more priority to vocational skills and technological proficiency, hence aligning with Goal 2 of the AU Agenda 2063. This goal emphasises well-educated citizens and skills revolution reinforced by science, technology and innovation.83 To leave no one and no place behind, the government is focused on ensuring the provision of conducive teaching and learning infrastructure in marginalised areas such as rural areas, farming communities and new resettlement areas.84

7 THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN CAPITAL

The significant role of human capital development in the discourse of sustainable economic growth has been widely acknowledged by economists since the eighteenth century.85 Human capital can be defined as the knowledge, skills, competencies and abilities of individuals, and the understanding attained through education, training and work experience.86 In the eighteenth century Adam Smith ushered in an improvement in human capability central to production, and the term ‘human capital’ was introduced by Theodore W Schultz.87 In the early 1960s the theory was established as a field of inquiry.88 Adam Smith stressed the importance of education, particularly the role of acquired and useful abilities of members of society in his concept of fixed capital.89 The idea was supported by Alfred Marshall, who highlighted the importance of education as a national investment.90 According to Professor Gary Stanley Becker, a winner of the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science, education and training are important investments in human capital.91 A higher level of education and training leads to an increase in wages and salaries, and people with advanced skills and knowledge have better chances to secure good jobs.92

The human capital theory states that investing in people results in economic benefits for individuals and society.93 The theory emphasises the importance of formal education in transforming a population’s productive capacity. McConnell and others, cited by Wuttaphan, state that ‘a more educated, better-trained person is capable of supplying a larger amount of useful productive effort than one with less education and training’.94 As individuals obtain skills and knowledge, it makes them more valuable to the economy. Education is a prime human capital investment because it tends to effect a control on population growth and improves quality of life.95

The 2021 World Economic Forum Human Capital Index shows that, on average, the world has developed 62 per cent of its human capital and neglected 38 per cent of its talent.96 Low literacy and education levels pose significant obstacles to human capital development in the Global South.97 To address the challenge of low literacy and education levels in developing countries, several policy interventions have been proposed.98 Human capital development is essential in developing countries as gaining knowledge and skills leads to economic growth and development.99 Countries in the Global North, such as Finland and South Korea, are moving forward due to huge technological investments and innovation.100 In sub-Saharan Africa, 47 per cent of the population is underdeveloped. The majority of African students pursue social science, business and law, while only 4 per cent study engineering, manufacturing and construction, and a mere 2 per cent show interest in agriculture.101

The Zimbabwean government’s central focus has been on the production of highly-skilled manpower following its policy of widening access to education adopted in 1980.102 The Transitional National Development Plan cited by Shizha and Kariwo states that

the government recognises that education is a basic human right. It also recognises that education is an investment in human capital, which sustains and accelerates the rate of economic growth and socio-economic development. The challenge for Zimbabwe is not only one of redressing the educational qualitative and quantitative imbalances in the inherited system but also that of meeting the exceedingly large demands with limited resources.103

Due to economic hardships, many professionals, including educators, have left the country in search of greener pastures. Zimbabwe has become a training ground for human resources for other nations. In return, Zimbabwe has benefited from the emigration of intellectuals through remittances in foreign currency back into the country.104

8 FINDINGS

This part discusses the findings relating to the government’s position on the benefits of the education curriculum reform as well as the human rights implications on educators, learners, parents or guardians. The findings are categorised in terms of the implications on each of the mentioned groups.

9 CONCLUSION

The government did not adequately interrogate the human rights implications of the increased workload on the educators, learners, parents and guardians as well as the high costs of learning materials. Too much homework in many learning areas per day affected the children’s rights to recreation and enjoyment of childhood. Article 19 of the African Children’s Charter gives children responsibilities towards their families and communities. Learners living far away from schools, especially in rural areas, are therefore expected to perform household chores when they get home, but due to the many learning areas, they tend to arrive home late with a lot of homework to be done and to be ready for submission the following day. The failure to balance the school work load and household chores could be one of the contributors of the zero per cent pass rate in rural and other marginalised schools discussed earlier in the findings. Such onerous school and home responsibilities left the children with very little or no time to play and do revision in preparation for the next learning day, thus further compromising the pass rates.

Marginalised and vulnerable children cannot afford to buy the numerous textbooks that are required as well as components for the CALA activities, compatible electronic gadgets and internet data bundles for research, costs for extra lessons and the exclusion of children who cannot pay for extra lessons. Compatible electronic gadgets cost between US $200 and US $300,120 depending on brand, ram size and performance. Eight gigabytes of data cost almost US $16 (ZWL 222 684),121 depending on the internet service provider. A lack of these devices and wifi impact on the quality of homework and a child’s academic performance.

The divide between the rich and the poor has been amplified since well-to-do parents are shunning the ZIMSEC-examined curriculum in preference for the Cambridge-based curriculum, which does not have CALA, and the heritage-based education curriculum. Segregation on the basis of economic status has been revived just like it was during the colonial period where there was education for the marginalised indigenous people and for the Europeans.

10 RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the study indicated that there were concerns regarding the implementation of CALA and the new heritage-based education curriculum. Child rights advocates recommended the inclusion of the voices of children with the capacity to appreciate curriculum development issues in consultations on relevance, inclusivity and effects on their well-being and enjoyment of childhood since children have a mantra that says ‘nothing for us without us’.

The government of Zimbabwe should consider the cost implications of implementing the new curriculum on parents and guardians and mobilise adequate resources for procurement of learning materials and internet connection at schools since most, if not all, government schools have no textbooks and each child should bring their own books from home.

The government through the relevant ministry must arrange workshops to cultivate positive perceptions on the new curriculum. The government should invest in the training of educators and impart them with the necessary skills, thus improving the quality of education. The government must also improve the welfare and working conditions of teachers. There is also a need to make the curriculum inclusive by ensuring that no place or individual is left behind in the education system.

The government should further collaborate with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the private sector to improve the country’s education system. In the future, intensive training should be done prior to the introduction of a new curriculum. The government should also invest in the education of parents/guardians on the importance of curriculum reforms since the majority of them do not understand these changes.